Persian Empire: Introduction

     Persia was the largest and most impressive of the world's empires by 500 B.C.E., spanning three continents and having a total population of approximately 35 million. Under the leadership of the famous monarchs Cyrus the Great (reigned 557-530 B.C.E.) and Darius (reigned 522-486 B.C.E.) the empire quickly expanded and gained immense wealth. What was unique about this empire was its respect for non-Persian cultural traditions and religions.
     The empire's government was a centralized, bureaucratic administration under the Emperor. The monarch was secluded in "royal magnificence" and could only be approached through an elaborate ritual. The great empire fell in 330 B.C.E. after Alexander III of Macedon led a military campaign against Persia.

Çatalhöyük: Artifact 10

Obsidian Mirror

     The small black circle in the photo the photograph above is actually what many archaeologists believe to be a mirror made out of obsidian. This was achieved by smoothing the volcanic rock down until it was shiny enough that you were able to see some form of a reflection.

Works Cited
Picture: https://www.courses.psu.edu/art_h/art_h201_ejw3/catal.html

Çatalhöyük: Artifact 9

Jewelry

     The jewelry found in Catal Huyuk was made of bone, shells, and rock. The real mystery is how these ancient artisans drilled such small and precise holes into the matter they were working with.

Works Cited:
Picture: https://cattalhuyuk.wikispaces.com/Artifacts

Çatalhöyük: Artifact 8

Carved Bone

     The bones carved bones shown would have acted as sewing needles or tools for sewing and weaving.

Works Cited
Information: Benn, Nathan. "Neolithic carved bone implements from Catal Huyuk." Corbis. Corbis
     Corporation, 2002-2014. Web. 13 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://www.corbisimages.com/stock-photo/rights-managed/42-25028915/neolithic-carved-bone-implements-from-catal-huyuk

Çatalhöyük: Artifact 7

Clay Pots

     Many of the cups, bowls, and pots found in the city of Catal Huyuk were baked clay or painted plaster. Archaeologists think they may have found what might be evidence of kilns in the ancient city. All pieces seemed to have a reddish pigment to them. One can tell cups apart from everything else, because of the pinched corners.

Works Cited
Information: "Pottery." Mysteries of ÇatalHöyük! Science Museum of Minnesota, 2003. Web.
     12 Sept. 2014.
Picture(s): http://www.smm.org/catal/artifacts/pottery/

Çatalhöyük: Artifact 6

Baked Clay Seals

      Baked clay seals with geometric designs were excavated at Catal Huyuk in central Anatolia. Made about 6000 B.C., the seals were used to stamp dye decorations onto skin or cloth.

Works Cited
Information: Benn, Nathan. Alamy. Alamy Ltd., 2014. Web. 14 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://users.stlcc.edu/mfuller/catalhuyuk.html

Çatalhöyük: Artifact 5

Religion: Goddess of the Underworld

           This figure appears alone in one of Catal Huyuk's sacred chambers. The circles most likely mean that the figurine s pregnant. The goddess is wearing a net-like garment and holding a veil of black, red, and yellow. The veil is similar to the woven Catal shrouds placed on the dead.
      There are many similarities drawn between ancient Greek religion (commonly known as Greek 'mythology') and Catal Huyuk beliefs. Check out the website for more on the goddess and those similar to her in both the ancient Greek and Egyptian religions.

Works Cited:
Information: "Catal Huyuk: Origins of Civilizations." Alternative Archaeology.
     alternativearchaeology. Web. 12 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://alternativearchaeology.jigsy.com/catal-huyuk

 

Çatalhöyük: Artifact 4

Religion: The Cattle

     There is a very close relationship between the Catal Huyuk worshipping of cattle and the ancient Egyptians. The Catal Huyuk created shrines with cattle horns protruding in an aggressive manner. The cattle shrine was believed to have been used to guide one's soul to the afterlife. Some historians believe the citizens of this ancient city began worshipping cattle due to the ''age of Taurus". Witnessing a time when Taurus was the ''rising'' constellation of the equinoxes.

Works Cited
Information: "Catal Huyuk: Origins of Civilizations." Alternative Archaeology.
     alternativearchaeology. Web. 12 Sept. 2014.
"Çatal Höyük: (The 'Forked Mound')." Ancient Wisdom. WiserHosting. Web. 12 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://realhistoryww.com/world_history/ancient/Anatolia_Turkey.htm

Çatalhöyük: Artifact 3

Religion: The Vulture

      Many shrines and walls had huge skeletal representations of vultures. The murals often depicted vultures eating corpses of human beings; this is believed to be some kind of funeral ritual. It is a funerary ritual called excarnation, where a body is laid in a Dakhma (a circular stone tower) to be picked at and eaten by vultures. In Catal Huyuk, shrine murals mirrored Dakhma's, they were called "Towers of Silence" (high wooden towers). It was believed that the soul would depart the body and embark on the journey to the ''otherworld" under the protection of the vultures wing. In Egyptian hieroglyphs the vulture was said/shown to be carrying the Ba or 'soul'.
     Archaeologists think that the Catal Huyuk citizens found the bird to be quite feminine. A discovery of human chests were found molded onto walls through the use of plaster, with vulture skulls (and beaks) protruding through the chest in a way that seemed to form nipples.

Works Cited:
Information: "Çatal Höyük: (The 'Forked Mound')." Ancient Wisdom. WiserHosting. Web. 12 Sept.
     2014.
"Catal Huyuk: Origins of Civilizations." Alternative Archaeology. alternativearchaeology. Web.
     12 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://arthistoryworlds.org/catal-hoyuk-paintings/

Çatalhöyük: Artifact 2

Bone Rings

     Rings were cut from a single bone. These rings were worn by a juvenile. Evidence supports the notion that two rings were usually worn on a finger, but the rings were not worn all together due to the fact that it would make working and other everyday tasks, harder to accomplish.

Works Cited:
Information: Hamilton, Naomi. "Bone Rings." Mystery of ÇatalHöyük! Science Museum of
     Minnesota, 2003. Web. 12 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://www.ancient-wisdom.co.uk/turkeycatalhuyuk.htm

Çatalhöyük: Artifact 1

Ancient Dwellings

     The ancient city of Catal Huyuk was one giant mass of interconnecting homes. Homes were made of mud bricks and plaster (the plaster was reapplied annually) and the dead were buried in the family house. There were no doors, instead, people gained access to homes through hatches in the roofs. People were able to climb to different levels through the use of ladders. Since all the houses were connected, no roads could weave in between the homes, so roofs essentially acted as streets.
     Walls and floors were covered in plaster and decorated with panels of red. Outside walls of homes had paintings depicting hunting scenes, death (with a vulture picking at a human carcass), and landscapes. Each home had an oven for baking bread, but there was no chimney, instead there were holes in the wall that provided ventilation. Rush matting was used on the floors and furniture was built with brick platforms that was used for sitting, working, and sleeping on. The bull was considered a sacred animal and on outside walls and altars of temple chambers, horns were projecting out.

Works Cited
Information: Gascoigm, Bamber. "A complete Neolithic town." HistoryWorld. 2001-Present. Web.
     11 Sept. 2014.
Lambert, Tim. "The Ancient City of Catal Huyuk." Local Histories. Web. 11 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://leavingbabylon.wordpress.com/book/being-there/

Çatalhöyük: Introduction

     Catal Huyuk was one of the worlds first towns and is the largest best-preserved Neolithic site ever found! Located in Turkey overlooking the Konya Plain and about 87 miles from Mount Hasan, this ancient village existed from about 6500 B.C. to 5700 B.C. It had a population of about 6,000 citizens who were among the first farmers. They grew wheat and barley and raised sheep and goats. They also continued to hunt animals like aurochs, wolves, foxes, and leopards.

Polynesian Society: Artifact 10

Feathered and Woven Helmet

    
     There were three distinct styles of helmets: feathered, woven, and helmets covered in human hair.
     The feathered helmet was worn by Hawaiian chiefs during ceremonies or battle. Red and yellow colors were favored by the nobility as a symbol of their high status. The helmet is made from  split aerial rootlets of the 'ie'ie; it is then covered with olona fiber which the feathers are tied too. The wide crest on the helmet is a style associated with the island of Kauai. Unfortunately, Hawaiian's stopped making feather garments and helmets in the early nineteenth century.
     The woven helmet below would have been worn by warriors or lesser chiefs; depended upon the design of the helmet.

Works Cited:Information: P.H. Buck. "Feathered helmet
     (mahoile)." The British Museum. Trustees of
     the British Museum. Web. 10 Sept. 2014.








Pictures: http://www.ourpacificocean.com/oceania_arts/index.htm
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aoa/f/feathered_helmet_mahiole-1.aspx

Polynesian Society: Artifact 9

Feather Boxes

     Feather boxes were used to store personal ornaments and valuables. These boxes got their names due to the fact that they usually held black and white tail feathers of the huia, which were worn as hair decorations. The boxes would have normally been more elaborate on the underside because it was the most visible part when hung up in homes.
     The oval wakahuia is carved in the style found in the area of Wanganui. The style applied onto the lid is know as kowhaiwhai from the area of Poverty Bay on the east coast of North Island.
     The rectangular papanou has a flat base and is carved in a style associated with the Bay of Islands area north of New Zealand. The sides usually contained carvings called mania figures on the side of the box. They were carvings of faces and sometimes bodies too. There is also a flax cord that goes diagonally across the box to hold the lid in place.

Works Cited:
Information: A.L. Kaeppler, D.C. Starzecka (ed.), R. Neich. "Feather boxes." The British Museum.
     Trustees of the British Museum. Web. 10 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aoa/f/feather_boxes.aspx

Polynesian Society: Artifact 8

Drum (Pohu Hula)

     Drums were very important in Hawaiian culture. They were made from shark skin and held into place with woven coconut fiber strands. Some contained decorative carvings such as this one, where there are four figures, as it seems, trying to support the rest of the weight of the drum. This is one of two known complete drums with figures carved into the bass.
     The drum shown would have probably been played as a part of a hula (see "Artifact 3" on my blog). Larger versions were used in temple ceremonies. Musicians would have played the pohu with one hand and another smaller drum tied to the knee with the other hand.

Works Cited:
Information: A.L. Kaeppler, G.S. Kanahele (ed.), P.H. Buck. "Drum (pahu hula)." The British 
     Museum. Trustees of the British Museum. Web. 10 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/aoa/d/drum_pahu_hula.aspx

Polynesian Society: Artifact 7

Fish Hooks

     The origin of the fish hook begins in the legends of the Māori people of New Zealand. Fishing was extremely important to the Māori people, because it showed their relationship with Tangaroa, god of the sea. Bone hei matau (fish hook) were carved from whale bone. Plain hei matau was used for fishing, while decorative ones were ornamental and served as necklaces and family heirlooms.
     In Hawai'i the fish hook signified strength and prosperity. The fish hook was meant to also represent the oceans wealth and beauty, seeing that resources to make it came from the ocean. Artisans used sharks and whales to make fish hooks. There were two types of hooks: simple ones made from only one kind of material such as bone or wood and composite hooks that consisted of two pieces lashed together.

Works Cited:
Information: "Meaning and History." IrishCarver. Weebly. Web. 9 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/finance/corp_images/object/object_archive.html

Polynesian Society: Artifact 6

Tahitian Art: Fan and Club

      Tahitian art had two primary functions: to honor and communicate with the gods and spirits of Tahitian belief and as jewelry and décor for chiefs and other people of the upper class. Certain items were used to show ones rank, either as a chief, priest, or aristocrat.
     Tahitian's worshipped five main gods: 'Oro, Ta'aroa, Tane, Tu, and Ro'o. 'Oro was the supreme god and was represented in club-like sculptures, like the one pictured on the left. The decorative club consists of a block of wood being wrapped around numerous times in tightly woven coconut fiber. Features were shown on the to'o through the application of strands of fiber onto the surface. This object was mostly associated with warfare,  but was also used by the ariori, a semi-professional class of performing artists.
     The fly whisk on the right not only had a practical use, but also showed someone's importance. Being made out of whale ivory, a precious commodity, this showed that the fly whisk most likely belonged to a chief. The top of the whisk would have had coconut fibers or feathers attached.

Works Cited:
Information: Department of AAOA. "Tahiti." Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan
     Museum of Art, 2000. Web. 9 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/tahi/hd_tahi.htm
    

Polynesian Society: Artifact 5

The Surf Board

     Surfing is one of the oldest sports on the planet. It originated in Western Polynesia over 3000 years ago. The first surfers were fisherman who rode waves to get to shore quicker with their catch. Eventually it became an exclusive sport for the wealthy. During the 15th century, kings, queens, and people of the Sandwich Isles loved the sport hu'enalu or wave-sliding. The ali'i or high  class claimed the highest reputation for skill on riding the boards. Private beaches formed, only to be used for surfing and those of similar talent. Only people of similar skill could surf together and never would anyone steal another persons wave.
     Prayers, board sharpers, wood, and beaches were developed for surfing. Certain trees were picked to make a board and when they were dug up, board makers would leave a fish around the roots as an offering to the gods. Before undergoing any kind of construction, surfboards underwent a sacred ritual.
     There are four basic board types used in ancient Hawai'i:
1. the paipo or kioe was a children's board only about two to four feet long.
2. the alaia or omo was around eight feet in length
3. the kiko'o was between 12 and 18 feet long and required a high level of skill to handle
4. the olo was reserved for royalty and was 18 to 24 feet long!

Works Cited:
Information: "The Origins of Surfing." UFIML. Veronica Britton. Web. 9 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://data.bishopmuseum.org/ethnobotanydb/ethnobotany.php?b=d&ID=ulu
Video of surfers doing what they do best: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uYI1QgxTMTA

Polynesian Society: Artifact 4

Easter Island Statues

     According to Easter Island legend, 1500 years ago a Polynesian chief, Hotu Matu'a sailed to the islands in a double canoe with his wife and extended family and landed on Anakena Beach. It is believed by many archeologists though, that the island was first settled around 800 A.D. to 1200. It is believed that early settlers brought over banana trees, taro root, and sweet potato. The farming of these crops on the island led to the Rapa Nui's demise. It was an environmental catastrophe, due to deforestation, erosion, and soil depletion.
     Moai statues are about 13 feet tall and weigh 14 tons. It is thought that these moai were created to honor ancestors, chiefs, and other people or things of great importance. Culture reached its height during the tenth to 16th century when the Rapa Nui people had carved and erected 900 statues across the island. The Rano Raraku quarry yielded the stone used for almost all of the island moai. Over 400 statues sit in the quarry, all in different stages towards completion.

Works Cited:
Information: Clark, Liesl. "Pioneers of Easter Island." NOVA. WGBH, 1996. Web. 9 Sept. 2014.
"Easter Island." National Geographic. National Geographic Society, 1996. Web. 9 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/365-photos/easter-island-statues/

Polynesian Society: Artifact 3

Hula Dancing

 

     Hula dancing, or Ha'a, tells a story or interprets/mimics movements of nature such as trees blowing in the wind or fish swimming in the ocean. It was also the Hawaiian's way of keeping record of their history. As a ritual dance, it was performed for the volcano goddess, Pele. Her sister Hi'iaka originally performed the dance for Pele. The goddess Laka is the "keeper" of the dance. She created two groups of Hula dancers: the Olapa and Ho'o-paa. The Olapa had younger dancers, representing new dances with more energy. The Ho'o-paa were the elders who accompanied the dancers with song and music.
     Ha'a started as poetic chanting done by men, this was called the Mele. As the men performed poetry, women dancers transformed their words into dance and performed along with instruments. There were sharkskin drums, rattles, gourds, and castanets. Costumes consisted of women being wrapped in skirts made of cloth and men wearing loincloths. After the ritual dance, leis were placed on the altar of Laka as an offering of flowers to the goddess.  

Works Cited:
Information: "Hula Dancing History." HulaDanceHQ. Web. 9 Sept. 2014.
Picture: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hula
Video of traditional Hula dance: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T9usfzaZvTk

Polynesian Society: Artifact 2

Ancient Polynesian Tattoos

     "The roles, techniques and motifs of the arts of the tatau, moko, and uni have continued to exist for over 2,000 years." In Tahiti, tattoos (tatau) were used to mark the different ranks and status' of those within their troupe. In the islands of French Polynesia (the Society, Tuamotu, Austral, Gambier, and Marquesas groups), each island group had its own unique design, so one was able to identify another person's origin based on their tattoos. "Some design elements that were common throughout Polynesia were linear geometric motifs, petroglyphs, and very basic pictographic representations of men, animals, birds, or other man-made objects." Each symbol had multiple meanings, depending upon the placement, on the body, incorporation with other designs, and the person being tattooed.
     The master or tattoo artist was highly regarded amongst society and was even respected by the sacred chiefs (ali'i/ariki). This was a highly trained individual was knowledgeable of both literal and figurative meaning of motifs, placement, and associated responsibilities and consequences. They determined what designs were appropriate and who could be tattooed when. The master would then explain the story behind that individuals tattoo.
     The process of tattooing has not changed much throughout the ages:
1. The design is marked and outlined on the body with charcoal or dark earth/dirt.
2. The master then begins to works with a needle, often made of bird bone, turtle shell, bamboo, and sometimes even shark teeth.
3.The ink is injected through multiple taps on and through the skin. Ink was usually made by mixing soot from a burned candlenut with a variety of liquids including candlenut oil, sugar cane juice, coconut water/milk, and other plant based liquids.
4. There is no healing ritual or process that is known of. It seemed that after being tattooed, people washed the wound in sea water and seeked proper medical attention.

Works Cited:
Information: "Skin Stories: the art and culture of Polynesian tattoo." PBS. Pacific Islanders in
      Communications, 2003. Web. 8 Sept. 2014
Picture: http://www.yvonnedevilliers.com/?cat=5

Polynesian Society: Artifact 1

The Voyaging Canoe

     The voyaging canoe was how people were able to travel from larger land masses to smaller islands. The vessel was made up of a double canoe made of two hulls connected by lashed crossbeams. A medium-sized canoe was about 50 to 60 feet long and could hold up to two dozen migrants, their food supplies, livestock, and planting materials. These ocean-goers navigated the sea by observing the stars, ocean swells, flight patterns of birds, and other natural signs.
     Travels began off the shores of New Guinea drawing people eastward into the ocean. By 1500 B.C. voyagers were moving along the Solomon island chain, to the Banks and Vantuatu Archipelagos. Once sailors reached Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, they were alone in the ocean, but despite the vast size of the ocean and unfavorable winds, they continued eastward to the Cook, Society, and Marquesas Groups.
     Legendary voyagers Kupe, Hotu Matu'a and Mo'ikeha began sailing around 1000 A.D. and are said to have reached the islands of New Zealand, Easter Island, and Hawai'i. Those three points make up what is known as the Polynesian Triangle.

Works Cited:
Information: "Polynesians: An Oceanic People." PBS. Avian Mind Design, and Maiden Voyage
     Productions. Web. 5 September 2014.
Photo: http://www.janesoceania.com/oceania_polynesians/index.htm

Polynesian Society: Introduction

      Polynesia is made up of over 1,000 islands in the central and southern Pacific Ocean. Many of the islands have similar languages, cultures, and beliefs. Some well-known islands that are a part of Polynesia include, Hawai'i, New Zealand, the Easter Islands, and Samoa.